5a. Definitions and Types

Introduction

In the introductory module for the course, we noted Conscientious Objection and Draft Resistance as an important type of peace movement historically and also in the present. In this module, we’ wil explore definitions, historical examples, and the meaning and impact of Conscientious Objection. 

Listen to this classic song by American singer-songwriter Phil Ochs.

First, we will look at what we mean by Conscientious Objection (CO) and how it is expressed. While going through this material, remember to think about this as a ‘peace movement’ and what are its aims/goals, ideologies/philosophies, and methods/tactics.

The definition offered in the Oxford International Encyclopedia of Peace is a useful one: 

…the term “conscientious objection” has been applied primarily to the stance of men who, for reasons of conscience, refused to bear arms if conscripted and were therefore exempted by the state from military service.¹

Of course, today the definition should include women and gender minorities, although there are very few countries that have mandatory military service for these groups. Throughout time, there were individuals who, because of a principled or moral objection to participation in warfare, resisted or sought exemption from conscription – mandatory military service. National governments have responded with laws and regulations that vary widely on the degree to which the CO position is respected and exemption from military service is allowed. Canada has not enacted laws of conscription – commonly just referred to as 'the draft' – since the Second World War, and so the issue may not seem very important in this country in the 21st century.

While it is an individual stance, based on one’s conscience, historically it was held collectively, mainly by religious groups. In fact, until the mid-20th century, Conscientious Objection was recognized primarily as a religious-based position. Certain Christian groups – Mennonites, Church of the Brethren, Quakers, Seventh-Day Adventists, and Jehovah’s Witnesses, for example, hold a CO stance, though not all are pacifists who object to all warfare. As we will see, in the past there were always individuals who objected to military service on the basis of conscience, philosophy, or morals. But if their objection was not based on recognized religious beliefs, their stance was generally not accepted by the state as a valid reason for exemption.

We can identify five types of Conscientious Objection²:

Absolutist Conscientious Objector

Absolutist COs resist the total war system and will not participate in or cooperate with any aspect of warfare. This was true of some non-religious objectors, supported by women’s groups, in the First World War. 

New York Herald, 1917

No Military Service

No service in military is acceptable, however a Conscientious Objector (CO) is willing to perform some kind of alternative service in lieu of an arms-bearing role. We will look at examples of this in Canada in the Second World War.

Robert Kreider, 1918

Non-Combatant Military Service

Will accept non-combatant service in military. In this case, an individual will accept military enlistment but only in a division that does not require participation in combat. A good example here would be for someone to serve in a medical capacity. This was an option in Canada during the Second World War. Marlene Epp’s CO grandfather, Abram Dick, served as a medic in the Soviet Union in the First World War.

Selective Conscientious Objector

Selective COs might object to a particular conflict, but do not object to participation in all warfare. They will differentiate between what they view as an unjust versus a just war. This would characterize some draft resisters during the American War in Vietnam.

uwdigitalcollections, 1965

Conscientious Objector to War Tax Payments

Conscientious Objectors to war tax payment will not pay the military portion of their federal income tax. This is a contemporary manifestation of Conscientious Objection at a time when in Canada, there is no military draft. The organization Conscience Canada has a ‘Peace Tax Return’ option that allows individuals to direct a portion of their income tax to non-military purposes. This is mainly a symbolic gesture since the government will not actually re-direct an individual's taxes in that way.

Most of these types are manifest in all wars. Not all of these types are recognized by governments as valid reasons to be exempt from military service.

The types are listed as a kind of continuum from least involvement at the top – the absolutist position – to greater involvement on the part of those who are selective COs in the war system, short of engaging in combat. Conscientious Objection to war tax payment is a bit of an outlier on the continuum, since it is more of a symbolic gesture that some pacifists make even when their country is not at war.